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단위조작 책에 있는 예제를 통해서 알아볼려고 해요.

 

판형 탑에서 공기와 섞여 있는 아세톤을 비휘발성 흡수유에 흡수시킬려고 해요.

들어가는 기체에는 아세톤이 30 mol% 이고, 

흡수유에는 아세톤이 섞여 있지 않아요.

공기 중에 있는 아세톤의 97%를 흡수시키고,

탑 bottom으로 나가는 농축액은 10 mol%의 아세톤을 갖게 할꺼에요.

평형관계식은 Ye=1.9xe 입니다.

 

가정 : 들어가는 기체 100 mol = Vb(공기와 섞여 있는 아세톤)

 

아세톤의 양 = 0.3 x 100 mol = 30 mol

공기의 양 = 100 mol - 30 mol = 70 mol

 

공기중에 있는 아세톤을 97% 흡수 시키므로 흡수 안되고 나가는 아세톤은 3%.

나가는 아세톤의 양 = 0.03 x 30 mol = 0.9 mol

나가는 공기와 아세톤의 양 = 70 mol + 0.9 mol = 70.9 mol

 

 

흡수된 아세톤의 양 = 30 mol - 0.9 mol = 29.1 mol

탑 bottom으로 나가는 농축액의 10 mol%가 아세톤 이므로 

농축액의 양 = 291 mol 

아세톤을 뺀 흡수유의 양 = 291 mol - 29.1 mol = 261.9 mol

 

위에 보이는 Operating line을 그리기 위해 

기체에 남아 있는 아세톤의 몰 수를 가정하여 탑 윗부분에서 아세톤의 수지식을 세워볼께요.

기체에 10 mol이 남이 있다면

 

10 mol 중에 나가는 아세톤의 양 0.9 mol 을 빼주면 9.1 mol이 나옵니다. 이건 흡수유가 가져 가겠죠.

흡수유중에 아세톤의 

 

이렇게 x,y 값을 가정하여 구하면 위의 그림과 같이 Operating line을 그릴 수 있어요.

이상단 수를 구해 보면 4.3 정도 되요. 0.3은 몰분율 l1/l2 를 해보면 대략 나와요.

4.3단이면 대략 5단이라고 봐야겠네요. 

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Distillation의 최소이론단수 어떻게 쉽게 구할 수 있을까요?

 

Fenske Method는 total reflux에서 최소이론단수를 빠르게 추정할 수 있어요.

 

 

 

Nm = minimum number of theoretical stages in the column at total reflux

xLKD = mole fraction light key in the distillate 

xHKD = mole fraction heavy key in the distillate  

xLKB = mole fraction light key in the bottoms 

xHKB = mole fraction heavy key in the bottoms 

(αLK/HK)AVG = geometric average of the relative volatility of light key to heavy key at the distillate, feed, bottoms locations = (αD αF αB)^1/3

 

상대휘발도가 상수일 경우엔 feed 조건의 상대휘발도를 이용하여 위의 식을 사용해요.

식에서 Nm + 1 로 표기된 이유는 리보일러(Reboiler)를 고려한 거에요. 

예를들어 구한값이 8단인데 리보일러가 있으면 +1 을 해서 최소이론단수가 9단이 되는거고요.

만약에 total condenser도 있다면 +2가 되니까 10단이 되는거죠.

 

 

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Purging 하는 방법에는 어떤게 있을까요? 4가지!!

 

1. Dilution purging (희석)

2. Displacement purging (대체)

3. Pressure-Cycle purging (가압하여 빼는 방법)

4. Evacuation-Replacement purging (비우고 대체하는 방법)

 

 

Purging하는 방법에 따라 어떤 이점이 있을까요?

 

1. Dilution purging 

 

용기의 purge 압력을 최소화 할 수 있음.

질소 주입속도를 최대화 할 수 있음.

Bulk Storage Tank 등에 사용 가능함.

 

 

2. Displacement purging

 

질소보다 무거운지 가벼운지에 따라 purge 방향 고려해야됨.

질소 소모량 최소화 할 수 있음.

주입 속도를 최소화 할 수 있음.

길고 좁은 Chemical Reactor 나 Pipe line 등에 사용 가능함.

 

3. Pressure-Cycle purging

 

가압되고 배기되는 비율에 따라 산소 농도가 감소함.

 

4. Evacuation-Replacement purging 

 

3번이랑 비슷한 방법인데 진공을 거는 방법임.

vacuum break를 inert gas로 사용함.

deadleg 나 pocket이 많은 용기에 효율적임.

 

 

3번과 4번은 특별할 게 없네요. 가압하여 빼내는건 압력을 견딜 수 있는 용기에 사용해야 해요. Evacuation 방법은 진공이 걸리니까 진공으로 design 되어야 합니다. 주의 하세요. 

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화재안전 관점에서 가장 중요한 물질의 성질중 하나가 인화점(Flash point) 입니다. 

 

인화점의 정의는 어떻게 될까요?

 

1 atm (760 mmHg) 에 있는 공기와 평형 조건에서 

충분한 양의 기체가 가연혼합물로 만들어지는 지점의 온도로 정의 합니다.  
인화점은 막힌 용기(Closed container)나 열린 용기(Open container)를 이용해서실험적으로 측정 할 수 있습니다.  
막힌 용기의 값이 보통 열린 용기 결과 값보다 몇도 정도 더 낮습니다. 이것은 대단히 중요한 안전 관련 결정들을 할 때 선호되어 이용합니다. 

 

 

폭발하한계(Lower Explosive Limit, LEL)는 인화점(Flash point)에서 공기와 함께 있는 가연성 물질의 농도(mole % 또는 volume % 입니다. 

 

순물질(pure material)의 인화점은 MSDS(material safety data sheets)나 책들, 인터넷 등에 찾아보면 바로 나옵니다. 그런데 혼합물질은 찾기가 쉽지 않습니다. 그래서 준비한 이슈가 개별적인 물질들의 인화점을 알고 있을때 혼합물질의 인화점을 어떻게 쉽게 예측할 수 있는지 알아 보는 겁니다. 알콜과 물이 섞인 용액을 예를들어 설명 하겠습니다.

 

두 성분 혼합물의 인화점은 어떻게 예측 할 수 있을까요?

 

인화점을 추측하는 절차는 vapor-liquid equilibrium(VLE) 계산과 굉장히 비슷합니다. 

 

Ideal mixure의 경우, Raoult's Law의 VLE 예측법을 이용

Non-ideal solution의 경우, 활동도 계수(activity coefficient)를 이용

 

물과 알콜같은 극성물질(polar compound)는 non-ideal 입니다. 

그리고 만족스런 결과를 위해 활동도 계수를 이용해야 합니다. 

 

ideal solution에도 활동도 계수를 설정합니다.

 

두 성분 혼합물의 인화점을 예측하는 일반적은 식은 아래와 같습니다. 

 

 

x1 = 몰 분율 (x1+x2 = 1 이 되어야 합니다)

y1 = 활동도 계수

P = 성분들의 vapor pressure

Pfp = 순 물질의 인화점에서의 vapor pressure

 

 

물과 같은 인화성 물질이 아닌것은 term을 지워버리면 됩니다. 그러니까 알콜을 첫번째 1부분에 넣고 2번은 지워 버리면 되는거죠. 

vapor pressure는 Antoine Equation을 이용해서 찾으시면 됩니다. 

 

 

위의 식 출처 : Journal of the university of chemical technology and metallurgy

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Petrochemical / Chemical Plant 에 열교환기들이 정말 많습니다. 

모양들도 제각각이고 사용처도 너무 다양합니다. 

그렇지만 한가지 똑같은게 있죠. 

열교환을 위한 장치라는거;; 하하;; 

이런 장치들은 1년에 한차례 청소도 해주고 보수 수리도 해야하죠. 

투자비를 뽑기 위해 오래토록 씁니다. 그러다보면 당연히 문제점들이 속속 들어나겠죠. 

그래서 준비한 이슈가 어떤문제가 생기면 이럴수도 있기 때문이다! 라는거에요;; 

Troubleshooting 이죠. 

 

열교환기 Troubleshooting 어떻게 진단 할까요?

 

1. 예상했던 것보다 압력손실이 더 적을때.

 

먼저 bypassing 흐름이 있는지 확인합니다. 

    

tube side의 경우, 플레이트 와 튜브시트 가스켓을 실험해 봅니다. 

또 corrosion(부식)이 생겼나 찾아보고 가스켓 문제 와 제조할때 결함이 있었나 찾아봅니다.

 

shell side의 경우, 부적절한 bundle sealing이 있나 보고, bundle seal strips를 검사 합니다. 

 

two-pass shell의 경우, 만약 long baffle을 용접하지 않았다면 유체가 bypassing 했을 수도 있습니다. 

leaf seal과 함께 쓰는 long baffle은 완벽하게 sealing 할 수 없고 그 부분에 damage를 얻을 수 있습니다. 

 

 

2. 예상했던 것보다 압력손실이 더 클때.

 

Venting이 잘 되고 있는지 확인 합니다. 특히 컨덴서(condenser)의 경우 제일 먼저 확인 합니다. 

 

fouling(오염)이 높은지 확인합니다.

 

start-up 할때 debris 가 있는지 확인 합니다. 

 

공정 stream 이 얼었나(freezing) 확인 합니다.   

 

two phase 의 경우 slug flow 인지 확인 합니다. 

 

제작에 결함이 있나 확인 합니다. 

 

3. Fouling(오염)이 있을때.

 

열 성능이 점진적으로 하락하는게 나타난다면 fouling을 검토해봐야 합니다. 

 

디자인 보다 더 적은 흐름이 있을때 디자인 조건 또는 작동 기간을 봤을때 차이가 있을 경우 열교환기를 작동시키는 history를 파악하여 확인 합니다. 

 

cooling water side에 fouling이 예상 된다면, 겨울철 동안에 cooling water 흐름이 줄어 들었는지 확인하면 됩니다.

 

 

4. Debris

 

특히 새로운 열교환기의 경우에 열교환기로 들어가는 부분에 있는 strainer를 확인해 봅니다. 

 

strainer가 없다면 돌이나 쓰레기, 장비, 장갑, 펜들 등등이 열교환기에 걸렸는지 확인해 봅니다.

 

 

5. 전열면적이 초과 할때.

 

대분분의 열교환기들은 오염되어진 조건에 맞추어 설계 되어 집니다. 

깨끗하게 작동되고 있을때 열교환기들은 너무 많은 열을 전달합니다. 

 

결과적으로 높은 온도나 freezing으로 인해 문제들이 생깁니다. 

이럴때 tube를 막아서 초과되는 전열면적을 줄일 수 있습니다. 

이때 쓰이는게 tapered metal plug인데 흔하게 사용됩니다. 

 

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농도 환산 어떻게 계산해야 할까요?

 

농도 환산에 대해서 간략하게 정리를 해볼려고 합니다. 

분석할때 환산도 꼭 필요하겠죠?? 

 

1. %농도 → 몰농도(M) 

 

 

2. %농도 → 노르말농도(N) 

  

 

3. M농도 → N농도 

 

 

 

4. 용해도 → %농도 

 

 

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소금물이 있어요. 

물에 소금을 넣어서 소금물을 만들죠. 

그러면 농도는 어떻게 될까요? 

김치를 만들때 적정한 농도의 소금물로 배추를 절이면 더 맛있겠죠? 

농도를 숫자로 표기할려면 어떻게 해야 할까요?? 


1.
백분율 농도

 
백분율 농도에는 두가지 형태가 있어요.

 1) v/v %
농도 : 용질부피 / 용액부피 * 100 [/ vol % 표시
 2) w/w %
농도 : 용질무게 / 용액무게 * 100 [g/g]  wt % 표시

 
통상 %농도라 하면 주로 w/w%를 의미해요.

  
밀도가 1g/ℓ경우 동일한 계산결과가 나와요.
  
일반적인 물의 밀도 = 1 mg/cm3 = 1 g/m = 1 kg/
  
   w/w %
농도는 무게백분율이라 부르며, v/v %농도는 부피백분율이라고 칭하죠.

 *
참고 
 

   - 무게 (weight) : 물체에 작용하는 중력의 크기, 중량이라고도 한다.
   -
질량 (mass)   : 물체의 역학적 성질을 결정하는 물체 고유의 기본적인 양

 

2. ppm 농도 [parts per million]

 ppm
농도는 어떠한 용질 1mg이 용액 1,000,000 mg ( 1 kg)중에 들어있는 농도를 말한다.
 (
단, 비중이 1인 경우)
 
 X ppm
농도의 용액을 만들 경우  용질무게 X mg에다, 용질무게를 포함한 용액전체의 무게가 1 kg
 (=1,000,000 mg)
이 되도록 용매를 넣어주어야 해요. (실험할때 헷갈리지 않게 조심해야줘;)
     
 
미량분석의 정량범위, 검출한계 등을 수적으로 표현하는 단위로 ppm 농도와 %농도간의 환산문제을
 
자주 실시하며%는 백분율이므로 1/100 1%가 되요. ppm은 백만분율이므로 1/1,000,000의 값이

 1 ppm 이 되죠.

 
따라서 1 = 100% = 1,000,000 ppm 이며, 1% = 10,000 ppm 이에요.
 
그러므로 % 농도를 ppm 단위로 고치려면 10,000 ppm/%를 곱해주어야 해요.
    
 * ppm
농도 = w/w %농도 * 10,000 [ppm/%]


3. ppb
농도 [parts per billion]

 
수질오염도나 대기오염도를 나타내는 단위로 ppm 농도와 ppb 농도간의 환산문제을 자주 실시하며,
 
일반적으로 ppb 농도를 1,000으로 나누면 ppm 단위의 농도가 된다.

 
단순히 ppb 1/10^9 을 표현해요.

 ppm
농도 = ppb 농도 * [1 ppm/1000ppb]


4.
몰농도 (Molarity : M)

 
용액 1ℓ에 들어 있는 용질의 몰수를 말하며, M 또는 g-mol/ℓ로 나타냅니다.
 
 M = (w / Mw) * (1,000 / V)      
 w : 용질의 무게(g), Mw : 용질의 분자량(g/g-mol), V : 용액의 부피(m)

 M = (10 * w/w %
농도 * ρ) / Mw  
 Mw : 용질의 분자량(g/g-mol), ρ : 용액의 밀도(g/m)

              
5.
몰랄농도 (Molality : m)

 
용매 1 kg 중에 용해되어 있는 용질의 몰수(g-mol), m으로 표시해요.
 
단위는 [g-mol/kg], 주로 라울의 법칙이나 삼투압 측정 등에 이용됩니다.

 
몰랄농도(Molality) = 용질의 g-mol / 용매 1 kg
 
몰랄농도(Molality) = (w / Mw) / (S / 1000)
 
 w : 용질의 무게(g), Mw : 용질의 분자량(g/g-mol), S : 용매의 무게(g)


6.
노르말농도 (Normal : N)

 
용액 1ℓ속에 녹아 있는 용질의 g-당량수로 나타내며, N으로 표시합니다.

 
노르말농도 (N) = 용질 g-당량수 / 용액의 부피()
 
노르말농도 (N) = (w / E) * (1000 / V)
 
 w : 용질의 무게(g), E : 용질 1g 당량수(g/g-당량), V : 용액의 부피(m)
 
   g
당량수 = 분자량 / (1분자중의 H+ 또는 OH- )

                   

7.
몰분율 (molar fraction)

 
어떤 성분의 몰수와 전체 성분의 몰수와의 비를 말합니다.
 1,2,3,...i
성분이 각각  n1, n2, n3,...ni 몰씩 섞여진 혼합물로 구성되어 있다고 하면 혼합물의 총 몰수는
 
   N = n1 + n2 + n3 + ......ni
 
  i
성분의 몰분율은   Xi = ni/N
 
 
각 성분의 몰분율을 모두 합하면 1이 됩니다.
 X1 + X2 + X3 + ....Xi =  n1/N + n2/N + n3/N+ .....ni/N 
 = (1/N)( n1 + n2 + n3+ ... + ni) = N/N = 1
  위와 같이
 계산이 됩니다.


8.
몰백분율

 
몰분율을 백분율로 나타낸 값.


9.
중량비   

 
용질의 g수를 용매의 g수로 나눈 값.


10.
몰비

 
용질의 몰수를 용매의 몰수로 나눈 값 .

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National Fire Protection Association(NFPA)

방화ㆍ안전설비 및 산업안전 방지장치 등에 관한 국제 규격입니다. 

소방펌프를 설계할때 이 코드를 참조 했었는데 오래전 일이라 다시 

찾아볼려고 했는데 찾기가 쉽지 않네요. 

참조하시라고 목록 과 링크를 드립니다. 

 

National Fire Protection Association(NFPA) CODE는 

어떤 내용을 담고 있을까? 

 

링크 : http://www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/document-information-pages

 

Code No. Code Name
NFPA 1 Fire Code
NFPA 2 Hydrogen Technologies Code
NFPA 3 Recommended Practice for Commissioning of Fire Protection and Life Safety Systems
NFPA 4 Standard for Integrated Fire Protection and Life Safety System Testing
NFPA 10 Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers
NFPA 11 Standard for Low-, Medium-, and High-Expansion Foam
NFPA 11A Standard for Medium- and High-Expansion Foam Systems
NFPA 11C Standard for Mobile Foam Apparatus
NFPA 12 Standard on Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems
NFPA 12A Standard on Halon 1301 Fire Extinguishing Systems
NFPA 13 Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems
NFPA 13D Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in One- and Two-Family Dwellings and Manufactured Homes
NFPA 13E Recommended Practice for Fire Department Operations in Properties Protected by Sprinkler and Standpipe Systems
NFPA 13R Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems in Low-Rise Residential Occupancies
NFPA 14 Standard for the Installation of Standpipe and Hose Systems
NFPA 15 Standard for Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire Protection
NFPA 16 Standard for the Installation of Foam-Water Sprinkler and Foam-Water Spray Systems
NFPA 17 Standard for Dry Chemical Extinguishing Systems
NFPA 17A Standard for Wet Chemical Extinguishing Systems
NFPA 18 Standard on Wetting Agents
NFPA 18A Standard on Water Additives for Fire Control and Vapor Mitigation
NFPA 20 Standard for the Installation of Stationary Pumps for Fire Protection
NFPA 22 Standard for Water Tanks for Private Fire Protection
NFPA 24 Standard for the Installation of Private Fire Service Mains and Their Appurtenances
NFPA 25 Standard for the Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Water-Based Fire Protection Systems
NFPA 30 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code
NFPA 30A Code for Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages
NFPA 30B Code for the Manufacture and Storage of Aerosol Products
NFPA 31 Standard for the Installation of Oil-Burning Equipment
NFPA 32 Standard for Drycleaning Facilities
NFPA 33 Standard for Spray Application Using Flammable or Combustible Materials
NFPA 34 Standard for Dipping, Coating, and Printing Processes Using Flammable or Combustible Liquids
NFPA 35 Standard for the Manufacture of Organic Coatings
NFPA 36 Standard for Solvent Extraction Plants
NFPA 37 Standard for the Installation and Use of Stationary Combustion Engines and Gas Turbines
NFPA 40 Standard for the Storage and Handling of Cellulose Nitrate Film
NFPA 42 Code for the Storage of Pyroxylin Plastic
NFPA 45 Standard on Fire Protection for Laboratories Using Chemicals
NFPA 46 Recommended Safe Practice for Storage of Forest Products
NFPA 50 Standard for Bulk Oxygen Systems at Consumer Sites
NFPA 50A Standard for Gaseous Hydrogen Systems at Consumer Sites
NFPA 50B Standard for Liquefied Hydrogen Systems at Consumer Sites
NFPA 51 Standard for the Design and Installation of Oxygen-Fuel Gas Systems for Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes
NFPA 51A Standard for Acetylene Cylinder Charging Plants
NFPA 51B Standard for Fire Prevention During Welding, Cutting, and Other Hot Work
NFPA 52 Vehicular Gaseous Fuel Systems Code
NFPA 53 Recommended Practice on Materials, Equipment, and Systems Used in Oxygen-Enriched Atmospheres
NFPA 54 National Fuel Gas Code
NFPA 55 Compressed Gases and Cryogenic Fluids Code
NFPA 56 Standard for Fire and Explosion Prevention During Cleaning and Purging of Flammable Gas Piping Systems
NFPA 57 Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Vehicular Fuel Systems Code
NFPA 58 Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code
NFPA 59 Utility LP-Gas Plant Code
NFPA 59A Standard for the Production, Storage, and Handling of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
NFPA 61 Standard for the Prevention of Fires and Dust Explosions in Agricultural and Food Processing Facilities
NFPA 67 Guide on Explosion Protection for Gaseous Mixtures in Pipe Systems
NFPA 68 Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting
NFPA 69 Standard on Explosion Prevention Systems
NFPA 70 National Electrical Code®
NFPA 70A National Electrical Code® Requirements for One- and Two-Family Dwellings
NFPA 70B Recommended Practice for Electrical Equipment Maintenance
NFPA 70E Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace®
NFPA 72 National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code
NFPA 73 Standard for Electrical Inspections for Existing Dwellings
NFPA 75 Standard for the Fire Protection of Information Technology Equipment
NFPA 76 Standard for the Fire Protection of Telecommunications Facilities
NFPA 77 Recommended Practice on Static Electricity
NFPA 79 Electrical Standard for Industrial Machinery
NFPA 80 Standard for Fire Doors and Other Opening Protectives
NFPA 80A Recommended Practice for Protection of Buildings from Exterior Fire Exposures
NFPA 82 Standard on Incinerators and Waste and Linen Handling Systems and Equipment
NFPA 85 Boiler and Combustion Systems Hazards Code
NFPA 86 Standard for Ovens and Furnaces
NFPA 86C Standard for Industrial Furnaces Using a Special Processing Atmosphere
NFPA 86D Standard for Industrial Furnaces Using Vacuum as an Atmosphere
NFPA 87 Recommended Practice for Fluid Heaters
NFPA 88A Standard for Parking Structures
NFPA 88B Standard for Repair Garages
NFPA 90A Standard for the Installation of Air-Conditioning and Ventilating Systems
NFPA 90B Standard for the Installation of Warm Air Heating and Air-Conditioning Systems
NFPA 91 Standard for Exhaust Systems for Air Conveying of Vapors, Gases, Mists, and Particulate Solids
NFPA 92 Standard for Smoke Control Systems
NFPA 92A Standard for Smoke-Control Systems Utilizing Barriers and Pressure Differences
NFPA 92B Standard for Smoke Management Systems in Malls, Atria, and Large Spaces
NFPA 96 Standard for Ventilation Control and Fire Protection of Commercial Cooking Operations
NFPA 97 Standard Glossary of Terms Relating to Chimneys, Vents, and Heat-Producing Appliances
NFPA 99 Health Care Facilities Code
NFPA 99B Standard for Hypobaric Facilities
NFPA 101 Life Safety Code®
NFPA 101A Guide on Alternative Approaches to Life Safety
NFPA 101B Code for Means of Egress for Buildings and Structures
NFPA 102 Standard for Grandstands, Folding and Telescopic Seating, Tents, and Membrane Structures
NFPA 105 Standard for Smoke Door Assemblies and Other Opening Protectives
NFPA 110 Standard for Emergency and Standby Power Systems
NFPA 111 Standard on Stored Electrical Energy Emergency and Standby Power Systems
NFPA 115 Standard for Laser Fire Protection
NFPA 120 Standard for Fire Prevention and Control in Coal Mines
NFPA 121 Standard on Fire Protection for Self-Propelled and Mobile Surface Mining Equipment
NFPA 122 Standard for Fire Prevention and Control in Metal/Nonmetal Mining and Metal Mineral Processing Facilities
NFPA 123 Standard for Fire Prevention and Control in Underground Bituminous Coal Mines
NFPA 130 Standard for Fixed Guideway Transit and Passenger Rail Systems
NFPA 140 Standard on Motion Picture and Television Production Studio Soundstages, Approved Production Facilities, and Production Locations
NFPA 150 Standard on Fire and Life Safety in Animal Housing Facilities
NFPA 160 Standard for the Use of Flame Effects Before an Audience
NFPA 170 Standard for Fire Safety and Emergency Symbols
NFPA 203 Guide on Roof Coverings and Roof Deck Constructions
NFPA 204 Standard for Smoke and Heat Venting
NFPA 211 Standard for Chimneys, Fireplaces, Vents, and Solid Fuel-Burning Appliances
NFPA 214 Standard on Water-Cooling Towers
NFPA 220 Standard on Types of Building Construction
NFPA 221 Standard for High Challenge Fire Walls, Fire Walls, and Fire Barrier Walls
NFPA 225 Model Manufactured Home Installation Standard
NFPA 230 Standard for the Fire Protection of Storage
NFPA 231 Standard for General Storage
NFPA 231C Standard for Rack Storage of Materials
NFPA 231D Standard for Storage of Rubber Tires
NFPA 231E Recommended Practice for the Storage of Baled Cotton
NFPA 231F Standard for the Storage of Roll Paper
NFPA 232 Standard for the Protection of Records
NFPA 232A Guide for Fire Protection for Archives and Records Centers
NFPA 241 Standard for Safeguarding Construction, Alteration, and Demolition Operations
NFPA 251 Standard Methods of Tests of Fire Resistance of Building Construction and Materials
NFPA 252 Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Door Assemblies
NFPA 253 Standard Method of Test for Critical Radiant Flux of Floor Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source
NFPA 255 Standard Method of Test of Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials
NFPA 256 Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Roof Coverings
NFPA 257 Standard on Fire Test for Window and Glass Block Assemblies
NFPA 258 Recommended Practice for Determining Smoke Generation of Solid Materials
NFPA 259 Standard Test Method for Potential Heat of Building Materials
NFPA 260 Standard Methods of Tests and Classification System for Cigarette Ignition Resistance of Components of Upholstered Furniture
NFPA 261 Standard Method of Test for Determining Resistance of Mock-Up Upholstered Furniture Material Assemblies to Ignition by Smoldering Cigarettes
NFPA 262 Standard Method of Test for Flame Travel and Smoke of Wires and Cables for Use in Air-Handling Spaces
NFPA 265 Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Room Fire Growth Contribution of Textile or Expanded Vinyl Wall Coverings on Full Height Panels and Walls
NFPA 266 Standard Method of Test for Fire Characteristics of Upholstered Furniture Exposed to Flaming Ignition Source
NFPA 267 Standard Method of Test for Fire Characteristics of Mattresses and Bedding Assemblies Exposed to Flaming Ignition Source
NFPA 268 Standard Test Method for Determining Ignitability of Exterior Wall Assemblies Using a Radiant Heat Energy Source
NFPA 269 Standard Test Method for Developing Toxic Potency Data for Use in Fire Hazard Modeling
NFPA 270 Standard Test Method for Measurement of Smoke Obscuration Using a Conical Radiant Source in a Single Closed Chamber
NFPA 271 Standard Method of Test for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products Using an Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter
NFPA 272 Standard Method of Test for Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Upholstered Furniture Components or Composites and Mattresses Using an Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter
NFPA 274 Standard Test Method to Evaluate Fire Performance Characteristics of Pipe Insulation
NFPA 275 Standard Method of Fire Tests for the Evaluation of Thermal Barriers
NFPA 276 Standard Method of Fire Test for Determining the Heat Release Rate of Roofing Assemblies with Combustible Above-Deck Roofing Components
NFPA 277 Standard Methods of Tests for Evaluating Fire and Ignition Resistance of Upholstered Furniture Using a Flaming Ignition Source
NFPA 285 Standard Fire Test Method for Evaluation of Fire Propagation Characteristics of Exterior Non-Load-Bearing Wall Assemblies Containing Combustible Components
NFPA 286 Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Evaluating Contribution of Wall and Ceiling Interior Finish to Room Fire Growth
NFPA 287 Standard Test Methods for Measurement of Flammability of Materials in Cleanrooms Using a Fire Propagation Apparatus (FPA)
NFPA 288 Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Horizontal Fire Door Assemblies Installed in Horizontal Fire Resistance-Rated Assemblies
NFPA 289 Standard Method of Fire Test for Individual Fuel Packages
NFPA 290 Standard for Fire Testing of Passive Protection Materials for Use on LP-Gas Containers
NFPA 291 Recommended Practice for Fire Flow Testing and Marking of Hydrants
NFPA 295 Standard for Wildfire Control
NFPA 297 Guide on Principles and Practices for Communications Systems
NFPA 298 Standard on Foam Chemicals for Wildland Fire Control
NFPA 299 Standard for Protection of Life and Property from Wildfire
NFPA 301 Code for Safety to Life from Fire on Merchant Vessels
NFPA 302 Fire Protection Standard for Pleasure and Commercial Motor Craft
NFPA 303 Fire Protection Standard for Marinas and Boatyards
NFPA 306 Standard for the Control of Gas Hazards on Vessels
NFPA 307 Standard for the Construction and Fire Protection of Marine Terminals, Piers, and Wharves
NFPA 312 Standard for Fire Protection of Vessels During Construction, Conversion, Repair, and Lay-Up
NFPA 318 Standard for the Protection of Semiconductor Fabrication Facilities
NFPA 326 Standard for the Safeguarding of Tanks and Containers for Entry, Cleaning, or Repair
NFPA 328 Recommended Practice for the Control of Flammable and Combustible Liquids and Gases in Manholes, Sewers, and Similar Underground Structures
NFPA 329 Recommended Practice for Handling Releases of Flammable and Combustible Liquids and Gases
NFPA 350 Guide for Safe Confined Space Entry and Work
NFPA 385 Standard for Tank Vehicles for Flammable and Combustible Liquids
NFPA 386 Standard for Portable Shipping Tanks for Flammable and Combustible Liquids
NFPA 395 Standard for the Storage of Flammable and Combustible Liquids at Farms and Isolated Sites
NFPA 400 Hazardous Materials Code
NFPA 402 Guide for Aircraft Rescue and Fire-Fighting Operations
NFPA 403 Standard for Aircraft Rescue and Fire-Fighting Services at Airports
NFPA 405 Standard for the Recurring Proficiency of Airport Fire Fighters
NFPA 407 Standard for Aircraft Fuel Servicing
NFPA 408 Standard for Aircraft Hand Portable Fire Extinguishers
NFPA 409 Standard on Aircraft Hangars
NFPA 410 Standard on Aircraft Maintenance
NFPA 412 Standard for Evaluating Aircraft Rescue and Fire-Fighting Foam Equipment
NFPA 414 Standard for Aircraft Rescue and Fire-Fighting Vehicles
NFPA 415 Standard on Airport Terminal Buildings, Fueling Ramp Drainage, and Loading Walkways
NFPA 418 Standard for Heliports
NFPA 422 Guide for Aircraft Accident/Incident Response Assessment
NFPA 423 Standard for Construction and Protection of Aircraft Engine Test Facilities
NFPA 424 Guide for Airport/Community Emergency Planning
NFPA 430 Code for the Storage of Liquid and Solid Oxidizers
NFPA 432 Code for the Storage of Organic Peroxide Formulations
NFPA 434 Code for the Storage of Pesticides
NFPA 450 Guide for Emergency Medical Services and Systems
NFPA 451 Guide for Fire Based Community Healthcare Providers
NFPA 471 Recommended Practice for Responding to Hazardous Materials Incidents
NFPA 472 Standard for Competence of Responders to Hazardous Materials/Weapons of Mass Destruction Incidents
NFPA 473 Standard for Competencies for EMS Personnel Responding to Hazardous Materials/Weapons of Mass Destruction Incidents
NFPA 475 Recommended Practice for Responding to Hazardous Materials Incidents/Weapons of Mass Destruction
NFPA 480 Standard for the Storage, Handling, and Processing of Magnesium Solids and Powders
NFPA 481 Standard for the Production, Processing, Handling, and Storage of Titanium
NFPA 482 Standard for the Production, Processing, Handling, and Storage of Zirconium
NFPA 484 Standard for Combustible Metals
NFPA 485 Standard for the Storage, Handling, Processing, and Use of Lithium Metal
NFPA 490 Code for the Storage of Ammonium Nitrate
NFPA 495 Explosive Materials Code
NFPA 496 Standard for Purged and Pressurized Enclosures for Electrical Equipment
NFPA 497 Recommended Practice for the Classification of Flammable Liquids, Gases, or Vapors and of Hazardous (Classified) Locations for Electrical Installations in Chemical Process Areas
NFPA 498 Standard for Safe Havens and Interchange Lots for Vehicles Transporting Explosives
NFPA 499 Recommended Practice for the Classification of Combustible Dusts and of Hazardous (Classified) Locations for Electrical Installations in Chemical Process Areas
NFPA 501 Standard on Manufactured Housing
NFPA 501A Standard for Fire Safety Criteria for Manufactured Home Installations, Sites, and Communities
NFPA 502 Standard for Road Tunnels, Bridges, and Other Limited Access Highways
NFPA 505 Fire Safety Standard for Powered Industrial Trucks Including Type Designations, Areas of Use, Conversions, Maintenance, and Operations
NFPA 513 Standard for Motor Freight Terminals
NFPA 520 Standard on Subterranean Spaces
NFPA 550 Guide to the Fire Safety Concepts Tree
NFPA 551 Guide for the Evaluation of Fire Risk Assessments
NFPA 555 Guide on Methods for Evaluating Potential for Room Flashover
NFPA 556 Guide on Methods for Evaluating Fire Hazard to Occupants of Passenger Road Vehicles
NFPA 557 Standard for Determination of Fire Loads for Use in Structural Fire Protection Design
NFPA 560 Standard for the Storage, Handling, and Use of Ethylene Oxide for Sterilization and Fumigation
NFPA 600 Standard on Facility Fire Brigades
NFPA 601 Standard for Security Services in Fire Loss Prevention
NFPA 610 Guide for Emergency and Safety Operations at Motorsports Venues
NFPA 650 Standard for Pneumatic Conveying Systems for Handling Combustible Particulate Solids
NFPA 651 Standard for the Machining and Finishing of Aluminum and the Production and Handling of Aluminum Powders
NFPA 652 Standard on the Fundamentals of Combustible Dust
NFPA 654 Standard for the Prevention of Fire and Dust Explosions from the Manufacturing, Processing, and Handling of Combustible Particulate Solids
NFPA 655 Standard for Prevention of Sulfur Fires and Explosions
NFPA 664 Standard for the Prevention of Fires and Explosions in Wood Processing and Woodworking Facilities
NFPA 701 Standard Methods of Fire Tests for Flame Propagation of Textiles and Films
NFPA 703 Standard for Fire Retardant—Treated Wood and Fire–Retardant Coatings for Building Materials
NFPA 704 Standard System for the Identification of the Hazards of Materials for Emergency Response
NFPA 705 Recommended Practice for a Field Flame Test for Textiles and Films
NFPA 720 Standard for the Installation of Carbon Monoxide(CO) Detection and Warning Equipment
NFPA 730 Guide for Premises Security
NFPA 731 Standard for the Installation of Electronic Premises Security Systems
NFPA 750 Standard on Water Mist Fire Protection Systems
NFPA 770 Standard on Hybrid (Water and Inert Gas) Fire Extinguishing Systems
NFPA 780 Standard for the Installation of Lightning Protection Systems
NFPA 790 Standard for Competency of Third-Party Field Evaluation Bodies
NFPA 791 Recommended Practice and Procedures for Unlabeled Electrical Equipment Evaluation
NFPA 801 Standard for Fire Protection for Facilities Handling Radioactive Materials
NFPA 803 Standard for Fire Protection for Light Water Nuclear Power Plants
NFPA 804 Standard for Fire Protection for Advanced Light Water Reactor Electric Generating Plants
NFPA 805 Performance-Based Standard for Fire Protection for Light Water Reactor Electric Generating Plants
NFPA 806 Performance-Based Standard for Fire Protection for Advanced Nuclear Reactor Electric Generating Plants Change Process
NFPA 820 Standard for Fire Protection in Wastewater Treatment and Collection Facilities
NFPA 850 Recommended Practice for Fire Protection for Electric Generating Plants and High Voltage Direct Current Converter Stations
NFPA 851 Recommended Practice for Fire Protection for Hydroelectric Generating Plants
NFPA 853 Standard for the Installation of Stationary Fuel Cell Power Systems
NFPA 900 Building Energy Code
NFPA 901 Standard Classifications for Incident Reporting and Fire Protection Data
NFPA 902 Fire Reporting Field Incident Guide
NFPA 903 Fire Reporting Property Survey Guide
NFPA 904 Incident Follow-up Report Guide
NFPA 906 Guide for Fire Incident Field Notes
NFPA 909 Code for the Protection of Cultural Resource Properties - Museums, Libraries, and Places of Worship
NFPA 914 Code for Fire Protection of Historic Structures
NFPA 921 Guide for Fire and Explosion Investigations
NFPA 950 Standard for Data Development and Exchange for the Fire Service
NFPA 951 Guide to Building and Utilizing Digital Information
NFPA 1000 Standard for Fire Service Professional Qualifications Accreditation and Certification Systems
NFPA 1001 Standard for Fire Fighter Professional Qualifications
NFPA 1002 Standard for Fire Apparatus Driver/Operator Professional Qualifications
NFPA 1003 Standard for Airport Fire Fighter Professional Qualifications
NFPA 1005 Standard for Professional Qualifications for Marine Fire Fighting for Land-Based Fire Fighters
NFPA 1006 Standard for Technical Rescuer Professional Qualifications
NFPA 1021 Standard for Fire Officer Professional Qualifications
NFPA 1026 Standard for Incident Management Personnel Professional Qualifications
NFPA 1031 Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Inspector and Plan Examiner
NFPA 1033 Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Investigator
NFPA 1035 Standard on Fire and Life Safety Educator, Public Information Officer, Youth Firesetter Intervention Specialist and Youth Firesetter Program Manager Professional Qualifications
NFPA 1037 Standard on Fire Marshal Professional Qualifications
NFPA 1041 Standard for Fire Service Instructor Professional Qualifications
NFPA 1051 Standard for Wildland Firefighting Personnel Professional Qualifications
NFPA 1061 Professional Qualifications for Public Safety Telecommunications Personnel
NFPA 1071 Standard for Emergency Vehicle Technician Professional Qualifications
NFPA 1072 Standard for Hazardous Materials/Weapons of Mass Destruction Emergency Response Personnel Professional Qualifications
NFPA 1081 Standard for Industrial Fire Brigade Member Professional Qualifications
NFPA 1091 Standard for Traffic Control Incident Management Professional Qualifications
NFPA 1122 Code for Model Rocketry
NFPA 1123 Code for Fireworks Display
NFPA 1124 Code for the Manufacture, Transportation, Storage, and Retail Sales of Fireworks and Pyrotechnic Articles
NFPA 1125 Code for the Manufacture of Model Rocket and High Power Rocket Motors
NFPA 1126 Standard for the Use of Pyrotechnics Before a Proximate Audience
NFPA 1127 Code for High Power Rocketry
PYR 1128 Standard Method of Fire Test for Flame Breaks
PYR 1129 Standard Method of Fire Test for Covered Fuse on Consumer Fireworks
NFPA 1141 Standard for Fire Protection Infrastructure for Land Development in Wildland, Rural, and Suburban Areas
NFPA 1142 Standard on Water Supplies for Suburban and Rural Fire Fighting
NFPA 1143 Standard for Wildland Fire Management
NFPA 1144 Standard for Reducing Structure Ignition Hazards from Wildland Fire
NFPA 1145 Guide for the Use of Class A Foams in Manual Structural Fire Fighting
NFPA 1150 Standard on Foam Chemicals for Fires in Class A Fuels
NFPA 1192 Standard on Recreational Vehicles
NFPA 1194 Standard for Recreational Vehicle Parks and Campgrounds
NFPA 1201 Standard for Providing Fire and Emergency Services to the Public
NFPA 1221 Standard for the Installation, Maintenance, and Use of Emergency Services Communications Systems
NFPA 1231 Standard on Water Supplies for Suburban and Rural Fire Fighting
NFPA 1250 Recommended Practice in Fire and Emergency Service Organization Risk Management
NFPA 1300 Standard for Community Risk Reduction (CRR) Plans
NFPA 1401 Recommended Practice for Fire Service Training Reports and Records
NFPA 1402 Guide to Building Fire Service Training Centers
NFPA 1403 Standard on Live Fire Training Evolutions
NFPA 1404 Standard for Fire Service Respiratory Protection Training
NFPA 1405 Guide for Land-Based Fire Departments that Respond to Marine Vessel Fires
NFPA 1407 Standard for Training Fire Service Rapid Intervention Crews
NFPA 1408 Standard for Training Fire Service Personnel in the Operation, Care, Use, and Maintenance of Thermal Imagers
NFPA 1410 Standard on Training for Emergency Scene Operations
NFPA 1451 Standard for a Fire and Emergency Service Vehicle Operations Training Program
NFPA 1452 Guide for Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Community Risk Reduction
NFPA 1500 Standard on Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health Program
NFPA 1521 Standard for Fire Department Safety Officer Professional Qualifications
NFPA 1561 Standard on Emergency Services Incident Management System and Command Safety
NFPA 1581 Standard on Fire Department Infection Control Program
NFPA 1582 Standard on Comprehensive Occupational Medical Program for Fire Departments
NFPA 1583 Standard on Health-Related Fitness Programs for Fire Department Members
NFPA 1584 Standard on the Rehabilitation Process for Members During Emergency Operations and Training Exercises
NFPA 1600 Standard on Disaster/Emergency Management and Business Continuity/Continuity of Operations Programs
NFPA 1616 Standard for Mass Evacuation and Sheltering
NFPA 1620 Standard for Pre-Incident Planning
NFPA 1670 Standard on Operations and Training for Technical Search and Rescue Incidents
NFPA 1700 Guide for Structural Fire Fighting
NFPA 1710 Standard for the Organization and Deployment of Fire Suppression Operations, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Career Fire Departments
NFPA 1720 Standard for the Organization and Deployment of Fire Suppression Operations, Emergency Medical Operations and Special Operations to the Public by Volunteer Fire Departments
NFPA 1730 Standard on Organization and Deployment of Fire Prevention Inspection and Code Enforcement, Plan Review, Investigation, and Public Education Operations
NFPA 1801 Standard on Thermal Imagers for the Fire Service
NFPA 1802 Standard on Personal Portable (Hand-Held) Two-Way Radio Communications Devices for Use by Emergency Services Personnel in the Hazard Zone
NFPA 1851 Standard on Selection, Care, and Maintenance of Protective Ensembles for Structural Fire Fighting and Proximity Fire Fighting
NFPA 1852 Standard on Selection, Care, and Maintenance of Open-Circuit Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)
NFPA 1855 Standard for Selection, Care, and Maintenance of Protective Ensembles for Technical Rescue Incidents
NFPA 1858 Standard on Selection, Care, and Maintenance of Life Safety Rope and Equipment for Emergency Services
NFPA 1877 Standard on Selection, Care, and Maintenance of Wildland Fire Fighting Clothing and Equipment
NFPA 1901 Standard for Automotive Fire Apparatus
NFPA 1906 Standard for Wildland Fire Apparatus
NFPA 1911 Standard for the Inspection, Maintenance, Testing, and Retirement of In-Service Automotive Fire Apparatus
NFPA 1912 Standard for Fire Apparatus Refurbishing
NFPA 1914 Standard for Testing Fire Department Aerial Devices
NFPA 1915 Standard for Fire Apparatus Preventive Maintenance Program
NFPA 1917 Standard for Automotive Ambulances
NFPA 1925 Standard on Marine Fire-Fighting Vessels
NFPA 1931 Standard for Manufacturer's Design of Fire Department Ground Ladders
NFPA 1932 Standard on Use, Maintenance, and Service Testing of In-Service Fire Department Ground Ladders
NFPA 1936 Standard on Powered Rescue Tools
NFPA 1937 Standard for the Selection, Care, and Maintenance of Rescue Tools
NFPA 1951 Standard on Protective Ensembles for Technical Rescue Incidents
NFPA 1952 Standard on Surface Water Operations Protective Clothing and Equipment
NFPA 1953 Standard on Protective Ensembles for Contaminated Water Diving
NFPA 1961 Standard on Fire Hose
NFPA 1962 Standard for the Care, Use, Inspection, Service Testing, and Replacement of Fire Hose, Couplings, Nozzles, and Fire Hose Appliances
NFPA 1963 Standard for Fire Hose Connections
NFPA 1964 Standard for Spray Nozzles
NFPA 1965 Standard for Fire Hose Appliances
NFPA 1971 Standard on Protective Ensembles for Structural Fire Fighting and Proximity Fire Fighting
NFPA 1975 Standard on Station/Work Uniforms for Emergency Services
NFPA 1976 Standard on Protective Ensemble for Proximity Fire Fighting
NFPA 1977 Standard on Protective Clothing and Equipment for Wildland Fire Fighting
NFPA 1981 Standard on Open-Circuit Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA) for Emergency Services
NFPA 1982 Standard on Personal Alert Safety Systems (PASS)
NFPA 1983 Standard on Life Safety Rope and Equipment for Emergency Services
NFPA 1984 Standard on Respirators for Wildland Fire Fighting Operations
NFPA 1986 Standard on Respiratory Protection Equipment for Technical and Tactical Operations
NFPA1987 Standard on Combination Unit Respirator Systems for Tactical and Technical Operations
NFPA 1989 Standard on Breathing Air Quality for Emergency Services Respiratory Protection
NFPA 1991 Standard on Vapor-Protective Ensembles for Hazardous Materials Emergencies
NFPA 1992 Standard on Liquid Splash-Protective Ensembles and Clothing for Hazardous Materials Emergencies
NFPA 1994 Standard on Protective Ensembles for First Responders to CBRN Terrorism Incidents
NFPA 1999 Standard on Protective Clothing and Ensembles for Emergency Medical Operations
NFPA 2001 Standard on Clean Agent Fire Extinguishing Systems
NFPA 2010 Standard for Fixed Aerosol Fire-Extinguishing Systems
NFPA 2112 Standard on Flame-Resistant Garments for Protection of Industrial Personnel Against Flash Fire
NFPA 2113 Standard on Selection, Care, Use, and Maintenance of Flame-Resistant Garments for Protection of Industrial Personnel Against Short-Duration Thermal Exposures
NFPA 5000 Building Construction and Safety Code®
NFPA 8501 Standard for Single Burner Boiler Operation
NFPA 8502 Standard for the Prevention of Furnace Explosions/Implosions in Multiple Burner Boilers
NFPA 8503 Standard for Pulverized Fuel Systems
NFPA 8504 Standard on Atmospheric Fluidized-Bed Boiler Operation
NFPA 8505 Standard for Stoker Operation
NFPA 8506 Standard on Heat Recovery Steam Generator Systems

 

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